Eight phases of The Song of Roland in one picture.

The Song of Roland is the oldest major work of French literature. It exists in various different manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The oldest of these versions is the one in the Oxford manuscript, which contains a text of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions) and is usually dated to the middle of the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is the first and most outstanding example of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero.

Early development of the tradition

The story told in the poem is based on a relatively minor historical incident, the ambush or battle of Roncevaux Pass on August 15, 778, in which the rearguard of Charlemagne's retreating Franks was attacked by Basques. In this engagement, recorded by historian and biographer Einhard (Eginhard) in his Life of Charlemagne (written around 830), the trapped soldiers were slaughtered to a man; among them was "Hruodland, Prefect of the Marches of Brittany".

The first indication that popular legends were developing about this incident comes in an historical chronicle compiled c. 840, in which we are told that the names of the Frankish leaders caught in the ambush, including Roland, were "common knowledge" (vulgata sunt). A second indication, potentially much closer to the date of the first written version of the epic, is that (according to somewhat later historical sources) during William the Conqueror's invasion of England in 1066 a "song about Roland" was sung to the Norman troops before they joined battle at Hastings:

Then a song of Roland was begun, so that the man’s warlike example would arouse the fighters. Calling on God for aid, they joined battle.

Taillefer, who sang very well, rode on a swift horse before the Duke singing of Charlemagne and Roland and Oliver and the knights who died at Roncevaux.

This cannot be treated as evidence that Taillefer, William's jongleur, was the "author of the Song of Roland", as used to be argued, but it is evidence that he was one of the many poets who shared in the tradition. We cannot even be sure that the "song" sung by Taillefer was the same as, or drew from, the particular "Song of Roland" that we have in the manuscripts. Some traditional relationship is, however, likely, epecially as the best manuscript is written in Anglo-Norman French and the Latinized name of its author or transcriber, called "Turoldus," is evidently of Norman origin ("Turold," a variant of Old Norse "Thorvaldr)."

In view of the long period of oral tradition during which the ambush at Roncevaux was transformed into the Song of Roland, there can be no surprise that even the earliest surviving version of the poem does not represent an accurate account of history. Roland becomes, in the poem, the nephew of Charlemagne, the Basques become Saracens, and Charlemagne, rather than marching north to subdue the Saxons, returns to Spain and avenges the deaths of his knights. The Song of Roland marks a nascent French identity and sense of collective history traced back to the legendary Charlemagne. As remarked above, the dating of the earliest version is uncertain. So is its authorship. Some say that Turoldus, who is named in the final line, is the author; if so, we still know nothing about him but his name. The dialect of the manuscript is Anglo-Norman, which indicates an origin in northern France. Some critics, however, notably the influential Joseph Bédier, held that the real origin of this version of the epic lies much further south.

Perhaps drawing on oral traditions, medieval historians who worked in writing continued to give prominence to the battle of Roncevaux Pass. For example, according to the thirteenth century Arab historian Ibn al-Athir, Charlemagne came to Spain upon request of the "Governor of Saragossa", Sulayman al-Arabi, to aid him in a revolt against the caliph of Cordoba. Arriving at Saragossa and finding that al-Arabi had had a change of heart, Charlemagne attacked the city and took al-Arabi prisoner. At Roncevaux Pass, al-Arabi's sons collaborated with the Basques to ambush Charlemagne's troops and rescue their father.

Synopsis

The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux, from an illuminated manuscript c.1455-1460.

Charlemagne and his army have been fighting for seven years in Spain. Marsilion, or Marsile, the Saracen King of Sarragossa, or Zaragoza, enters into a parliament with his nobles. At the behest of Blancandrin, Marsile decides to fake a surrender in order to secure the Frankish withdrawal from his lands.

Marsile sends envoys to negotiate the terms of surrender with Charlemagne: Blancandrin, as chief envoy, promises in bad faith that if Charlemagne returns home to Aix-la-Chapelle, Marsilion will soon follow and convert to Christianity.

The Christian lords enter into a discussion on how to respond to Marsile's offer. Roland distrusts Marsilion, but Ganelon, Naimon and most of the others are in favour of taking the chance that he is sincere. Charlemagne agrees, but there is still the difficulty of finding an ambassador who will bear the message to Marsile.

Charlemagne is reluctant to choose a valued knight, since Marsile murdered the last ambassadors that had been sent. Accordingly, Charlemagne rejects the offers of Roland and Turpin to carry the message and decrees that none of the Twelve Peers will be sent.

Roland recommends that Ganelon be the one to undertake the embassy to Marsilion. Ganelon construes this as an insult, threatens Roland and then, while travelling in company with Blancandrin to Zaragoza, plots revenge.

In Zaragoza, Ganelon tells Marsilion that Charlemagne's agreement is contingent upon two conditions. Firstly, Marsile will only be allowed to keep half of Spain, while the rest must go to Roland. Secondly, Marsile's uncle must be among the hostages offered as guarantees of good faith.

After threatening to kill Ganelon, Marsile is advised by Blancandrin that the Frank is willing to betray Roland and the Twelve Peers. Marsilion offers Ganelon friendship and gifts of great wealth, and Ganelon promises to ensure that Roland and the Twelve Peers of France will be placed in the rearguard of the army rather than with the main body of Charlemagne's forces.

This will enable Marsile, who has not the forces to defeat the Franks outright, to kill the twelve champions of France, without whom Ganelon says the French will be unwilling to wage war.

After Ganelon fulfills his side of the bargain, Roland, with Oliver and the other Twelve Peers, takes charge of the 20,000 strong rear-guard of the Frankish army.

An army of Saracens, 100,000 strong, led by the nephew of Marsile and 11 other Saracen champions, is seen to be approaching the rear guard. Roland's friend Oliver advises him to blow his horn Olifant to summon the rest of the army, but Roland's code of honour obliges him to fight despite being outnumbered.

The battle that follows comprises two parts. The initial onslaught of Saracens is repelled by the Franks, but only 300 Frankish knights, including Roland and most of the Twelve Peers, survive.

The Saracens attack a second time, with Marsile himself leading a host of 300,000 warriors. It soon becomes clear that the Franks will lose. At the advice of Archbishop Turpin, Roland blows his horn, not in the expectation of rescue, but hoping that Charles will return to bury their bodies and revenge their martyrdom. Roland blows his horn so hard that 'the temple of his head' is ruptured, and blood pours from his mouth.

When only Roland, Turpin and Gualter de Hum are still alive, Roland slices off the right hand of Marsile. Marsile flees from the field and is followed by those of his men that still survive. Roland and Turpin are the only warriors still standing on the field of battle, and are as such victorious.

Nevertheless, Turpin has been wounded in many places by Saracen projectiles and is bleeding to death as he administers the last rites to his fellow soldiers. Roland himself, while unharmed by any weapon, is bleeding to death from his ruptured temple.

After Turpin dies, Roland climbs to the top of a hill looking south into Spain. He cracks his Olifant, bludgeoning a pagan to death who tries to steal his sword, then tries to break his sword on a rock: the sword does not break. Roland dies under a tree, facing south holding his sword Durendal and his Olifant.

Charlemagne meanwhile has been riding back from France with all possible speed and has arrested Ganelon for his treachery. When he arrives at the battlefield in Roncevaux, he faints with grief.

Charlemagne mourns and then sets out to overtake the fleeing Saracen army. Catching up to them in the fields before Sarragossa, Charlemagne's army slaughters them, and many Saracens who escape the sword drown in the waters of a nearby river.

Marsile escapes into his citadel in Sarragossa. Because their army had received no aid from their Gods, the anguished inhabitants of Sarragossa deface the idols of their infernal 'trinity': the statues of Mahound, Tervagent, and Apollyon (Apollo) are dragged from the mosque and beaten with sticks. (This part makes clear that the writer(s) had little idea of even the basics of Islam and its strict prohibition on any graven images.)

That night Baligant, the Emir of Babylon (i.e., Cairo and not the Babylon in Mesopotamia), arrives with reinforcements from Asia. Marsile dies passing his authority to Baligant.

Charlemagne marshalls his forces into national divisions under his greatest remaining champions: Bavarians, Germans, Normans, Bretons, Flemings, and Burgundians, to destroy the Muslim army led by Baligant. The Christians destroy the Muslim army, and Charlemagne defeats Baligant in personal combat.

The Christian army swarms into Sarragossa: the idols and artifacts of sorcery in the synagogues and mosques of Zaragoza are smashed, and 100,000 Muslims and Jews are baptized.

Bramimonde, the widow of Marsile, is captured, and Charlemagne gives orders for her to be converted, not by force, but by 'parable and sermon'.

The Franks then return to Aix-la-Chapelle, where Roland's fiancée (and Oliver's sister) Aude dies of grief.

Ganelon is tried for treason, but claims that his actions constituted a justified vengeance and that he did not commit treason. To settle the dispute, Ganelon's relative Pinabel fights judicial combat with Roland's friend Thierry.

Thierry wins. Ganelon is executed along with the members of his family that stood as vouchsafes of his innocence; Ganelon is drawn and quartered, and his relatives are hung by their necks.

Queen Bramimond is baptized, and Charlemagne is finally satisfied. While he is sleeping, an angel comes to Charles and instructs him to provide succour to the city of Imphe, under attack from Pagans. Charles weeps and tears his white beard, crying that his life is miserable.